Fatherhood

1. Joseph H. Pleck. 1987. “American Fathering in Historical Perspective.” Pp. 83-97 in Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity. Edited by Michael S. Kimmel. Sage Publications.
2. Francine Deutsch. 2002. “Halving It All: The Mother and Mr. Mom.” In Families at Work: Expanding the Boundaries. Edited by Naomi Gerstel, Dan Clawson, and Robert Zussman. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press.
3. Dorothy Roberts. 1998. “The Absent Black Father.” Pp. 145-161 in Lost Fathers: The Politics of Fatherlessness in America. Edited by Cynthia R. Daniels. St. Martin's Press.

1. According to Joseph Pleck, how did the role of fathers change in the United States over time? What are the expectations about fatherhood today, both according to the article and based on your own observations?

According to Pleck, the role of fatherhood has changed in three distinct ways since the eighteenth century. It began with a firm basis on religion, where the father's main role was to educate his children in terms of religion and morality. He was, "a moral pedagogue who must instruct children of both sexes what God as well as the world required of them" (Pleck, 352). Here the father had the main roles in raising children, as women were seen as indulgent, sinful creatures that would lead the children, as well as men, astray. Much of this role was enabled by the fact that during this time, the father worked within the family context in some sort of trade, as opposed to being in the business world outside of the home.
The next phase in fatherhood was characterized by a distancing of them from the children, and the increasing role of the mother as the primary nurturing figure. The home began to be seen as the women's specialty, while the men's duty was to go out and earn the money so as to support his family. This was brought about by industrialization, and the need to work outside the home to maintain a living. In this scenario, the father was still the primary authority in the house, but he only stepped in when the mothers actions failed. It is in this period that the so called "declination" of fatherhood began, and the distancing of father from child can be seen.
The third and final phase before today's views of fatherhood were the father as the sex role model, both for his sons and daughters. In post-war times when women took on many of the typically masculine roles and positions, it was necessary for the father to instill in his sons what it means to be a man, so as they are not raised to be too feminine or in the light of women; it was feared that without male influence, many sons would turn out to be homosexual. Paternal absence characterized this postwar period, and the result was a fear in the lack of identity building for maturing males. It was also the father who was seen as the one to instill both feminine and masculine qualities in his children, "encouraging instrumental behavior in his son and expressive behavior in his daughter" (Pleck, 357). Besides these roles however, fathers were encouraged to maintain their distance from their children.

Today, fatherhood is seen as almost a Superman-like position, termed a "new father" (Pleck, 358). Here, they remain the primary breadwinners, moral examples, and sex role models, while being involved in their children's lives in ways that were previously discouraged. The father should be present at birth, should be involved in each stage of the children's lives, and should participate in child care with the mother. This modern day expectation of fathers seems like a contradictory expectation, and I agree with this. The men are still expected to be the breadwinners to conquer the outside world, while keeping up their side of the bargain in the house in terms of children-rearing and housework. I know that women are faced with this struggle everyday, but I still feel as though more is expected of men because they are criticized for not fulfilling either role to the full extent; they are either criticized for being too "soft" in wanting to be involved in typically female roles, or for being inadequate fathers that are too consumed with their professional lives to have time for their children. I think a happy medium needs to be achieved, but this will only happen with time and the further expansion of male and female roles both inside and outside of the family.

2. According to Francine Deutsch, why do couples with children decide to work alternating shifts, and how is that decision related to their social class status? How does these families' division of labor compare to their gender ideologies? Would you select an alternating shift arrangement for your family?

According to Francine Deutsch, couples with children decide to work alternating shifts for a variety of reasons. One, and perhaps the most obvious, is to save money on childcare in having a parent with the children at all times. Childcare has become a major decision in today's society, because those institutions that could provide quality care for children are too expensive for those families that actually need it, and they are thus left with those institutions that are not safe or beneficial for your child.
Another reason that parents choose to work alternate shifts is because it allows them to instill their own values into their children, as opposed to having them "raised" by strangers. When parents are forced to leave their children at daycare/with babysitters, there is a chance that the child could be raised with the values of said caregivers, and not that of the parents. Many feel as though it is their duty as a parents to raise their children, and the best care possible can be received through them.
That being said, the last reason Deutsch gives for parents taking alternate shifts is that they feel as though children should only be cared for by family.

This decision is completely related to their social status; on one hand, because their initial lack of money is what put them into this situation in the first place. To play into the cultural norm of the U.S., it is because the supposed breadwinner is not making enough money that the women then have to work too, regardless of whether or not they want to. And with the aforementioned values about raising children, the women cannot abandon them while the man is at work, and thus she will go to work when he gets home at night.
Another way that this type of living situation is even possible is because typically it is in working class families that there are wage-earners working shift-based jobs, meaning they can choose when they want to work as opposed to being at a company that runs from 9-5.

The families division of labor in terms of gender identity is ironic in that even though both spouses work, and in some cases the women make more money than the men, the men continue to be viewed as the primary breadwinner. The position that these families have been put in makes it necessary for women to take on men's duties in terms of bringing in monetary support, while the men take on domestic chores and stronger roles in childcare. Even so, men continue to hold onto the view that women should stay home with the kids, while they should be able to single handedly support their families. These men, "by clinging to some core aspect of that picture...can convince themselves that they are maintaining traditional gender identities despite their nontraditional arrangements" (Deutsch, 125).
The men and women for the most part experience different emotional responses from their alternate shift schedule; women get to feel a sense of accomplishment by building a career outside of what is "expected" of them, and allows them to experience something that they might not have had their families not needed more money to get by. It seemed, in examining this article, that although many of the women went back to work for the money, in their own minds it was because they wanted to get out of the house, and they wanted to use their talents to make a difference in the world.
Men, on the other hand, have a variety of different reactions to this situation. One group develops an enormous sense of sympathy and understanding for women who stay at home all day, and put in their fair share of work to make things easier at home. Another group does what they have to do just to get by, and then leaves things such as the dishes for their wives when the return from their shift. Most of the men, however, feel as though things should not be how they are, and that the women should be in the home taking care of the kids and doing the housework. Many men, when asked what would happen if they suddenly got a better job, felt that this would happen - regardless of how happy their wives were at work!

I don't think I could ever bring myself to have an alternate shift lifestyle with my family. I do agree that there are challenges that present themselves in terms of taking care of one's children, but I do not want to have to make sacrifices that could in essence destroy my marriage by not seeing my spouse besides in the morning and late at night. Whether through institutions such as church or through family, I hope to be able to find alternatives to daycare - or even be able to stay home myself while my children are young, and then work "mom hours" once they enter school.

3. According to Dorothy Roberts, what are the societal forces that discourage family participation of Black fathers? What elements of Black fatherhood led to the creation of the myth of the Absent Black Father, and what patterns of Black men’s behavior contradict this myth?

One societal force that discourage family participation of Black fathers is the chronic poverty; in many cases, Black men and women have children without getting married, and due to the racist structure of this country they cannot find a steady job and would not be able to support them. But without the monetary aspect, many men would continue to be involved in their children's lives and maybe even live with them; but the welfare system makes it impossible for this to happen, because women will be cut off if there is a many living in the house.
Also, the fact that a disproportionate number of Black men are put in jail makes it difficult for them to participate in family life, and, "Locking a man up essentially makes him ineligible for marriage, rips him away from his family, and prevents him from finding a decent job" (Roberts, 150). This incarceration is caused by a multitude of reasons,

The elements of Black fatherhood that led to the creation of the Absent Father myth seem to be simply those things that do not fit into the "norm" of white, middle-upper class society. Typically the father is supposed to provide for his family and be the sole breadwinner of the marriage. In this part of society, however, it has been seen due to poverty and incarceration that it is difficult for many Black men to obtain a job that will enable them to do this.
Also, even though "labelling a child 'fatherless' usually means that the parents are not married"(Roberts, 151), the term fatherless usually is understood that there is no father in the picture at all. And while this is not true most of the time, having something said repeatedly and unfailingly will make people believe it, and only see the situations that make their beliefs come true.
A third element that could have created more absent fathers is the state trying to improve the lives of children through increasing the amount of child support to be paid by fathers. While this may seem like a good idea in theory, it actually takes a lot of men away from their children and forces them into hiding because they cannot afford to pay the money.

In essence, fathers are the same in all races and ethnicities. They want to provide for their children, they want to support their wives, and they want to be involved in their families. However, there are often extemporaneous circumstances that make this impossible, say for example if one does not fit into the norm category of what is expected for looks, talent, and experience. While not a lot of study has been done on the good aspects of Black fatherhood, these aspects do indeed exist in the form of mentoring, and the involvement of men in their children's lives whether it be "normal" or not. In one study, it was found that, "poor, African-American, officially absent fathers actually had more contact with their children and gave them more informal support than did White, middle-class absent fathers" (Roberts, 153).